All of the Elements in the Actinide Family Are Liquids or Radioactive
Office i. A Historical introduction to the periodic table and the nuclear physics origin of elements
Medico Brownish'south Chemical science
Advanced Level Inorganic Chemical science Periodic Table Revision Notes
Some historical aspects of the development of the concept of the Periodic Table from the piece of work of chemists similar Mendeleev are presented, alongside comments about discoveries occurring at the same time as physicists were investigating atomic structure.
The modern periodic table is so presented, though the electronic justification for its construction is presented in Role 2 and then we can concentrate on the history of the Periodic Table here.
Finally, a cursory summary of some examples of how the different elements are formed past the nuclear processes in stars to give our naturally occurring elements and cursory comments with links to more detailed notes most how we extract elements to exploit for our own use. This is designed for pre-academy Avant-garde A Level students so note the link below!
For not-A level students 
KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE Periodic Table notes - including simplified historical comments
INORGANIC Part i Historical Introduction folio sub-index: 1.i The early on classification of Antoine Lavoisier of 1789 * one.2 The 1829 piece of work of Johann D�bereiner * one.3 The work of John Newlands 1864 * 1.4 Dmitri Mendeleev's Periodic Tabular array and Lothar-Meyer graphs of ~1869 * i.5 A modern Periodic Table based on the electronic structure of atoms * i.6 Where did the elements come from originally and where do nosotros go the elements from today?
Advanced Level Inorganic Chemistry Periodic Table Index * Function i Periodic Table history * Part 2 Electron configurations, spectroscopy, hydrogen spectrum, ionisation energies * Role 3 Period 1 survey H to He * Role 4 Period 2 survey Li to Ne * Role 5 Period 3 survey Na to Ar * Part half-dozen Period four survey One thousand to Kr and important trends down a grouping * Part vii s-block Groups 1/2 Alkali Metals/Alkaline metal Earth Metals * Part viii p-block Groups 3/xiii to 0/18 * Part 9 Group 7/17 The Halogens * Part 10 3d block elements & Transition metal Series * Part 11 Grouping & Series data & periodicity plots * All eleven Parts have their ain sub-indexes nearly the elevation of the pages
1. A few snippets of the past and standing history of the Periodic Table
Non all scientists are mentioned who perhaps should be, merely I've tried to pick out a few 'highlight' and added some footnotes on what was happening in terms of the evolution of the detailed knowledge of the structure of atoms, and so essential to the modern interpretation of the Periodic Table. Its a good 'advanced' instance of how scientific discipline works i.e. the relationship between experimental data and theories to account for it, questions posed, questions answered, leading to more comprehensive and accurate theories developing.
ane.ane The early classification of Antoine Lavoisier of 1789
| Antoine Lavoisier'due south 1789 classification of substances into iv 'element' groups | |||
| acid-making elements | gas-like elements | metallic elements | earthy elements |
| sulphur | light | cobalt, mercury, tin | lime (calcium oxide) |
| phosphorus | caloric (heat) | copper, nickel, iron, | magnesia (magnesium oxide) |
| charcoal (carbon) | oxygen | gold, lead, silverish, zinc | barytes (barium sulphate) |
| azote (nitrogen) | manganese, tungsten | argilla (aluminium oxide) | |
| hydrogen | platina (platinum) | silex (silicon dioxide) | |
- The understanding that an element as a unique atomic 'building block' which could not be split into simpler substances and chemical compound is a chemic combination of 2 or more elements were non at all understood at the time of Lavoisier.
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'light' and 'caloric' (heat), were considered 'substances' and the final 'scientific' vestige of the elements of 'earth, burn, air and water' which had in that location conceptual origin in the Greek civilisation of 2300-2800 years ago.
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However, Lavoisier was correct on a few things east.yard. the elements sulphur, phosphorus and carbon and correctly described their oxides as acidic e.g. dissolved in water turned litmus turns ruddy.
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Many metallic elements, were correctly identified though I doubt if they were pure though!
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What he described as the 'earthy elements' are of form compounds, a chemical combination of a metal plus oxygen or sulfur (both O and S in instance of barium).
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He didn't have very high temperature smelting technology, or a reactive metal from electrolysis (came in about 1806 onwards)' to 'split up' the elements in some way e.g. he couldn't extract a reactive metal! In other words, at this time, the incorrect 'nomenclature' was due to a lack of chemical technology every bit much as lack of noesis.
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Diminutive structure history annotation: Yous can run into from the 1789 'tabular array' Lavoisier and his contemporaries did not have the experiment techniques, information or theoretical framework to conspicuously distinguish between 'elements' and 'compounds'. It was only in 1808 Dalton proposed his atomic theory based on experimental data and produced the kickoff list of 'atomic weights', which we now call relative atomic masses.
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i.2 The 1829 work of Johann D�bereiner
- Johann D�bereiner noted that sure elements seemed to occur as 'triads' of similar elements eastward.thousand.
- (i) lithium, sodium and potassium
- (2) calcium, strontium and barium
- (iii) chlorine, bromine and iodine
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D�bereiner was amongst the offset scientists to recognise the 'group' idea of chemically very similar elements.
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Three groups he 'recognised' were (i) Group 1 Brine Metals, (ii) Group 2 Alkaline metal Earth Metals, (iii) Grouping vii Halogens.
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Atomic construction history annotation: The physical and chemical likeness of the iii members of these 'triad groups' should be axiomatic and it was based purely on ascertainment, however D�bereiner and contemporaries where unaware of the atomic and molecular nature of these elements eastward.m. the atomic nature of the metals (M atoms) and the molecular nature of the Halogens (X2 diatomic molecules). In fact the concept of a 'molecule' was showtime realised by Avogadro in 1811 but it took 50 years before the genius of his experimental piece of work and intuition was fully realised.
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1.3 The work of John Newlands 1864
| Newland's 'Law of Octaves' (his 'Periodic Table' of 1864) | ||||||
| H | Li | Ga | B | C | Northward | O |
| F | Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S |
| Cl | 1000 | Ca | Cr | Ti | Mn | Fe |
| Co, Ni | Cu | Zn | Y | In | As | Se |
| Br | Rb | Sr | Ce, La | Zr | Di, Mo | Ro, Ru |
| Pd | Ag | Cd | U | Sn | Sb | Te |
| I | Cs | Ba, V | Ta | W | Nb | Au |
| Pt, Ir | Tl | Pb | Th | Hg | Bi | Cs |
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Newlands recognised that every vii elements, the eighth seemed to be very similar to the 1st of the previous seven when laid out in a 'periodic' manner and he was one of the first scientists to derive a 'Periodic Table' from the bachelor noesis.
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due east.g. his 'table' consists of almost completely genuine elements (Di was a mix of two elements), classified roughly into groups of like elements and a real recognition of 'periodicity'
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He also recognised that the 'groups' had more than 3 elements (not but 'triads'), and was correct to mix upward metals and non-metals in aforementioned group e.g. in fifth column there is carbon, silicon, tin (Sn) from what we know call Group 4. However, indium is in grouping 3 just Ti, Zr have a valency of 4, like Grouping 4 elements and practice form part of vertical cavalcade in what we know call the Transition Metal serial
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Other correct 'patterns' if not precise are recognisable in terms of the modern Periodic Table e.chiliad. one-half of column ii is Group 1, half of column three is Group 2, half of column 5 is Grouping 4, half of column vi is Group 5, half of column vii is Group vi. If we put his column i equally cavalcade vii, information technology would seem a meliorate match of today!
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Although none of his vertical column groups match completely but the basic design of the modernistic periodic table was emerging. However cavalcade'due south 1 and seven do seem especially mixed up compared to the mod periodic tabular array.
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The progressive work of John Newlands was initially rejected because not all the elements fitted the design and you lot may notice that many metals and non-metals are rather mixed up..
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However , he was very much on the correct track and deserves more credit than he is oftentimes given considering he was a pioneer in the idea of setting out the elements to give vertical columns of 'similar elements', which we now telephone call 'groups', and y'all see this in the contents of nigh of the columns.
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Atomic construction history note: A good wedge of history at this point!
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The Greeks Leucippus and Democritus ~500-400 BC wondered what was the event of continually dividing a substance i.e. what was the end product or smallest bit i.e. what was left that was indivisible - the word atom/atomic is from Greek adjective atomos meaning 'not divisible'.
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They considered that matter is made of atoms that are too small to exist see and cannot be divided into smaller particles. They speculated that there was empty infinite between solid atoms and that atoms were the same throughout a cross section and atoms could have different sizes, shapes and masses.
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These were brilliant ideas for their time and such concepts were the result of excellent intuitive thinking Only the famous and much more eminent and revered philosopher Aristotle, didn't think much of their theory, and so atomic theory never adult for virtually 2000 years!
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Its worth commenting further on the Greeks. Although vivid in intellectual soapbox on many subjects and legendary mathematicians, they were Not very good at scientific discipline. Almost Greek intellectuals did not consider doing experiments to test out theories equally very important, and therefore over 2000 years agone they actually rejected the principal methods by which nosotros today do science!
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Withal, the Greeks idea of atoms was not completely forgotten and afterwards revived by Boyle and Newton but with little progress.
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Robert Boyle (1627-1691) in his volume 'The Sceptical Chemist' talked almost tiny identical particles that were indivisible but could be joined in diverse means to make 'compounds'.
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But, in 1808, Dalton (1766-1844) proposed his diminutive theory that all matter was made upwards of substances of some kind of 'atomic nature' and the different types of atoms (elements) combined together to give all the different substances of the concrete globe.
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His theory included the idea that atoms in an element are however and an chemical element was not divisible into more than fundamental substances.
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In 1808 at that place was no actual proof that individual cantlet particles existed just Dalton envisaged an element as a fundamental type of substance that could not exist split into simpler substances.
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Dalton considered that a chemical compound is made by joining at to the lowest degree two dissimilar elements together to grade a new substance in specific proportions (we now write as a formula, and atoms do not change themselves in a reaction but from the original reactants they re-arrange to grade the products.
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This is real progress! Most of his ideas were correct except the 'indivisibility' of the atom! but it would take well-nigh another 60 years before the idea of 'atomic construction' would accept shape from experimental results.
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He also produced the get-go listing of 'diminutive weights' (nosotros now call relative atomic masses) on a scale based on hydrogen which was given the arbitrary value of 1 since it was lightest chemical element known, and, equally it happens, correctly so.
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Dalton likewise devised symbols for the different elements, simply his 'picturesque' symbols were not universally adopted and today's elements letter symbols were introduced and promoted past the chemist Jons Berzelius in 1811.
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In 1876 Goldstein and Jean Perrin in 1895 passed a high-voltage electrical discharge through various gases and discovered beams of negatively charge particles where formed.
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They where chosen cathode rays and, where in fact, what we now know equally negative electrons (merely they didn't know this!).
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The electrons were emanating from the negative electrode and being accelerated towards the positive anode.
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They were unaware that positive ions were likewise produced and beamed in the opposite direction.
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Up till and then, it was just causeless that matter consisted of Daltons 'atoms' i.eastward. particles that could not be broken downwardly into smaller particles, so did not accept any meaningful structure but merely combined in diverse ways to make unlike compounds.
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This was the existent outset of enquiry into 'diminutive structure', especially every bit it was shortly establish later on that a stream of positive particles was travelling in the contrary direction to the 'negative electrons'!
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Goldstein's and Perrin's experiments also provided the experimental ground for the development of the mass spectrograph by Aston - what we know now as a mass spectrometer.
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Background developments in identifying metallic elements
Before proceeding farther it is pertinent to consider the history of metallic extraction, since near elements in the periodic table are metals and the more elements known, the more than the structure of the periodic table tin emerge. The ease of extraction and ultimately existence identified as an element is intimately connected to how easy information technology is to extract a metal. A short summary, based on the reactivity series of metals and methods of extracting metals from ores is outlined below.
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Social club of decreasing reactivity related to the primeval know engagement of extraction and use: -
francium (1939, very radioactive), caesium (1860, ?), rubidium (1861, ?)
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potassium (1807, 1855 from electrolysis), sodium (1807, from electrolysis)
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lithium (1817, electrolysis?), calcium (1808, from electrolysis)
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magnesium (1755, 1808 from electrolysis), aluminium (1825, by electrolysis)
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zinc (before 1500, ), iron (extracted with charcoal before 3000 BP)
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tin (~4500 BP, used to make statuary)
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atomic number 82 (over 9000 BP, archaeologist have found atomic number 82 beads 9000 years old, used by the Romans for plumbing well over 2000 years ago)
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copper (~11000 BP extracted via charcoal from ores >4000 years ago, constitute 'native' and was browbeaten out of rocks and into a useful shape!)
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silverish (~7000 BP, used by aboriginal civilisations)
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golden (~8000 BP, used by ancient civilisations, due east.g. Egyptian civilisations, found 'native' in streams and extracted past 'panning')
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platinum (~1735, rare metal only known to aboriginal Due south American civilisations before Europeans arrived in the 15th century, brought to Europe ~1750)
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Detailed notes on the 'Reactivity Series of Metals'
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The date is quoted as the 'normal' year (BCE/Advertising) or BP pregnant years before present year (I've non used BC).
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The understanding of electricity and the evolution of d.c. electric supplies in the early on 19th century (1807 onwards, well before Mendeleev) due east.g. using simple voltaic batteries meant that the more reactive metals could so be extracted by electrolysis.
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One time more reactive metals could be produced in larger quantities by electrolysis, these metals themselves were then used to extract other metals e.1000. chromium which were often hard to extract by conventional smelting furnaces using carbon.
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And so, by the time we reach Mendeleev's periodic table and the work of others like Lothar Meyer (from the 1866s to the 1890s) , quite a big number of elements were well known and characterised, and so the time was ripe for further development.
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ane.4 Dmitri Mendeleev's Periodic Table and Lothar Meyer's Graphs of 1869
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Mendeleev (Russian pharmacist) first published his 'Periodic Table' work simultaneously in 1869 with the work of Lothar Meyer (High german pharmacist) who looked at the physical properties of all known elements.
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Lothar Meyer noted 'periodic' trend patterns e.g. peaks and troughs when melting or boiling points, specific heat and atomic volume values were plotted against 'diminutive weight' - what we now telephone call relative atomic mass.
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My mod versions of Lothar Meyer's graphs are shown on a separate pages, plus others and at present the properties are plotted against atomic/proton number and I've managed to collect almost data upwards to element 96.
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Elements Z = 1 to twenty roofing Periods one-iii and beginning of Menses iv Elements Z = ane to 38 roofing Periods 1-4 and start of Period v Elements Z = 1 to 96 covering Periods i-six and start of Period vii
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The atomic volume graph is shown below conspicuously showing the 'periodic' highest volumes for the brine metals - the to the lowest degree dense of the elements in liquid or solid form.
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My modern version of Lothar-Meyer'due south 'atomic volume' curve
and beneath ane of Mendeleev'south early versions of the Periodic Table
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Mendeleev laid out all the known elements in order of 'atomic weight' (what we know call relative atomic mass, Ar ) except for several examples like tellurium (Te, Ar = 127.threescore) and iodine (I, Ar = 126.90) whose order he reversed because chemically they seemed to be in the wrong vertical column! Smart thinking!
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Argon (Ar, Ar = 39.95) and potassium (M, Ar = 39.ten) is the 2nd instance, but that was non a problem for chemists at the time, because the Group 0 Noble Gases hadn't been discovered by and so!
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These 'anomalies' in the lodge of 'diminutive weights' are explained by the beingness of isotopes which were discovered ~1916 and the neutron finally characterised in 1932.
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Isotopes of elements are atoms of the aforementioned proton number with different numbers of neutrons, hence atoms of the same element with different mass numbers.
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The most arable stable isotope of potassium is 39K, and that of argon is twoscoreAr, hence the bibelot.
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Naturally occurring iodine is 100% 127I, simply tellurium has a range of isotopic masses from 120Te to 130Te simply more the heavier isotopes are more than abundant than the lighter isotopes.
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By 1869, Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer had an advantage over Newlands (1864) because by and so in that location was an increased number of known elements and hence 'groups' of like elements were condign more clearly defined.
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Mendeleev used a double column arroyo which is NOT incorrect, i.e. a sort of group xA and xB classification. This is due to the 'insert' of transition metals, some of whom show chemical similarities to the vertical 'groups'.
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| This is how Mendeleev'southward periodic table looked in an early Russian publication (in Russian). The left image doesn't look quite equally familiar, Simply, if yous rotate it round 90o it begins to look much more familiar! All 'familiar 7 vertical groups (1-7, also now numbered 1-2 and 13-17) show up, call back Noble Gases had not been discovered yet. I've added comments that partially explain why Mendeleev got some of the groupings wrong in terms of our mod groups ane to 7 of the periodic table. Note that despite information technology being in Russian from the tardily 19th century, most of the chemical symbols should be familiar to you! that'southward the idea - a universal linguistic communication! Group ane is right bar Tl and radioactive francium was unknown. Thallium is (Tl) is in group 3 but does have a valency of 1. Group two is partly right, merely ii wrong, Zn and Cd, just the latter 2 d cake elements have a valency of 2 just similar Be and Mg Group 3 B and Al 'correct' but included an unknown and U & Y, the latter ii (only take a valency of three). Group 4 three correct and one unknown predicted (Ge) and lead (Pb) in the wrong place, but the master valency of atomic number 82 is 2 then it was included with the group 2 metals Ca, Sr and Ba (Mg is missing?). Group 5 is all correct, quite remarkable since you go down the grouping from non-metals to a metal. Group half-dozen is all correct, again quite remarkable grouping, only the unknown radioactive element polonium is missing. Group 7 is all correct, brilliant again, but couldn't take known almost radioactive astatine at that time. Although the complications due to the transition metal series and lanthanide and actinide series of metals due to the electronic sub-groups we now recognise equally d blocks or f blocks, Mendeleev yet recognised some as 'blocks of ' metals with some similarity. So, no wonder he is given great historical credit for his insight and foresight into the development of the Periodic Table. | |
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Mendeleev'due south 'presentation' was sufficiently accurate to predict missing elements and their backdrop * e.g. germanium (Ge) below silicon (Si) and above tin (Sn) in Group IV and Mendeleev is rightly called the 'father of the modern Periodic Table'.
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Atomic structure history notes: In 1897 Wien and J J Thompson measured the charge mass ratio of the 'particles' of the cathode rays (electrons) and also showed that the smallest positively charged particle was obtained from hydrogen gas. This 'smallest particle' nosotros now know is the proton.
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Thompson ~1897 proposed his 'plum pudding' theory based on the growing evidence that atoms where themselves composed of fifty-fifty minor more fundamental particles and the mass and charge of the proton and electron. Thompson envisaged a plumb pudding atom consisting of a positively charged 'pudding' with but plenty lighter negatively charged electrons embedded in it to produce a neutral atom. The positive balancing the negative was right but the relative size and nature of the nucleus were non.
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Between 1910-1914 Millikan established the value of the electric charge on an electron in his famous 'oil drop' experiments, hence the mass of the electron could be calculated.
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From 1902-1910 Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden and others used blastoff particle scattering experiments (GCSE-Every bit atomic structure notes) to plant the concept of the nucleus and were even able to make an estimate of the value of its positive charge (which we at present know equals the diminutive/proton number). Even at that phase it was recognised that this positive nuclear charge bore some relationship to the society of the elements, every bit given by 'atomic weights', which Mendeleev and others were using to construct their periodic tabular array.
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Experimentally the 'atomic number' of an element was established past Chadwick in 1920 from beta particle scattering experiments (an atoms electrons deflecting the bombarding beta particle electrons) and from the X-ray spectra results of Moseley in 1913. Moseley showed that when atoms were bombarded with cathode rays (electrons) X-rays where produced. It was found that the square root of the highest free energy emission line (called the 1000 alpha line, Kα) gave a linear plot with the apparent atomic number. However the plot of √Gα against atomic weight (relative atomic mass) gave a zig-zag plot. Therefore finally establishing that the really of import 'chemical identity number' was the accuse on the nucleus, i.e. what we know as the atomic/proton number and this would be the crucial number for ordering the elements, ultimately into the modern periodic tabular array.
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However, in that location was however the problem of why the diminutive mass and diminutive number where different i.e. in the example of the lighter elements, the diminutive weight was often about twice the atomic number. In 1919 Aston developed a cathode ray tube i.e. like those used by Wien and Thompson etc. into a 'mass spectrograph', which we now know as a mass spectrometer notes. This showed that atoms of the same element had different masses but there was no experimental evidence that they had different atomic numbers (which of course they didn't). In 1920 Rutherford suggested there might be a 'missing' neutral particle and in 1932 Chadwick discovered the neutron by bombarding beryllium atoms with alpha particles which produced a axle of neutrons
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9 4Be + four 2He ==> 12 6C + 1 0northward
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Incidentally, the neutrons are unaffected by electrical and magnetic fields and not directly 'observed', they were primarily detected because they produced a beam of protons on standoff with molecules of the hydrocarbon wax by a sort of snooker ball collision event. The protons are readily detected and characterised (mass one, charge +10 and their germination linked to the presence of a neutral particle of the same mass (neutron mass 1, charge 0).
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Once the nature of the neutron was finally deduced by Chadwick , it completely explained the nature of isotopes and backed up the ideas from Moseley's work that the fundamentally of import number that characterises an chemical element is its atomic number and NOT the diminutive mass.
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So, we are now prepare to construct the total modern periodic tabular array based on the order of atomic number and wide range of data (formulae, spectroscopy, chemic reactions etc.) on most of the elements up to 92 and at present beyond to chemical element 118.
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1.v A modern version Periodic Table based on the electronic structure of atoms
The electronic basis of the periodic table is explained in Part 2.
| Pd | s�cake metals | 3d to 6d blocks including the Transition Metals (Periods iv to vii), notation that the 1st (d1) and 10th (dten) block metals are Non true transition elements. So 8/10 of 3d blocks are true transition metals d2 to d9 elements. | p�block metals and non-metals | |||||||||||||||
| Gp1 | Gp2 | Gp3/ *thirteen | Gp4/ *fourteen | Gp5/ *xv | Gp6/ *16 | Gp7/ *17 | Gp0/ *eighteen | |||||||||||
| 1 | 1H Note: (i) H does not readily fit into whatever group, (2) He not strictly a 'p' chemical element but does belong in Gp 0/18 | twoHe | ||||||||||||||||
| ii | iiiLi | 4Be | Full IUPAC modernistic Periodic Table of Elements Z Symbol, z = atomic or proton number | 5B | 6C | sevenDue north | 8O | ixF | 10Ne | |||||||||
| 3 | elevenNa | 12Mg | *Gp3 | *Gp4 | *Gp5 | *Gp6 | *Gp7 | *Gp8 | *Gp9 | *Gp10 | *Gp11 | *Gp12 | 13Al | xivSi | xvP | sixteenS | 17Cl | 18Ar |
| 4 | 19K | 20Ca | 21Sc | 22Ti | 23V | 24Cr | 25Mn | 26Atomic number 26 | 27Co | 28Ni | 29Cu | xxxZn | 31Ga | 32Ge | 33Equally | 34Se | 35Br | 36Kr |
| 5 | 37Rb | 38Sr | 39Y | 40Zr | 41Nb | 42Mo | 43Tc | 44Ru | 45Rh | 46Pd | 47Ag | 48Cd | 49In | 50Sn | 51Sb | 52Te | 53I | 54Xe |
| 6 | 55Cs | 56Ba | *57-71 | 72Hf | 73Ta | 74Due west | 75Re | 76Os | 77Ir | 78Pt | 79Au | 80Hg | 81Tl | 82Pb | 83Bi | 84Po | 85At | 86Rn |
| 7 | 87Fr | 88Ra | *89-103 | 104Rf | 105Db | 106Sg | 107Bh | 108Hs | 109Mt | 110Ds | 111Rg | 112Cn | 113Nh | 114Fl | 115Mc | 116Lv | 117Ts | 118Og |
| Group 1 Alkali Metals Group 2 Alkaline Earth Metals Grouping vii/17 Halogens Group 0/18 Noble Gases Take note of the four points on the right | ||||||||||||||||||
| * 57La | 58Ce | 59Pr | sixtyNd | 61Pm | 62Sm | 63Eu | 64Gd | 65Tb | 66Dy | 67Ho | 68Er | 69Tm | 70Yb | 71Lu | ||||
| * 89Ac | 90Th | 91Pa | 92U | 93Np | 94Pu | 95Am | 96Cm | 97Bk | 98Cf | 99Es | 100Fm | 101Md | 102No | 103Lr | ||||
| *Horizontal insert in Period vi of Lanthanide Metal Series (Lanthanoids) Z=57 to 71 includes 4f�cake series (elements 58�71). Element 57 is the start of the 5d cake, interrupted by the 14 4f block elements and and so continues with elements 72-80. *Horizontal insert in Catamenia vii of the Actinide Series of Metals (Actinoids) Z=89�103 including the 5f�block series (elements 90�103). Element 57 is the outset of the 5d block, interrupted by the 15 5f cake elements and continues with elements 72-fourscore. | ||||||||||||||||||
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With increasing knowledge of the elements of the Periodic Table information technology is now laid out in lodge of atomic (proton) number.
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Due to isotopic masses, the relative atomic mass does go 'up/downwards' occasionally (there is no obvious 'nuclear' rule that accounts for this, at least at GCSE/GCE level!). Merely chemically Te is like S and Se etc. and I is like Cl and Br etc. and and so are placed in their right 'chemically similar family' group and this is now backed up by modernistic knowledge of the electron structure of atoms.
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Nosotros now know the electronic structure of elements and can empathise sub-levels and the 'rules' in electron structure eastward.g. 2 in shell 1 (period 1, ii elements H to He), eight in shell 2 (flow 2, 8 elements Li to Ne), there is a sub-level which allows an extra ten elements (the transition metals) in period iv (18 elements, K to Kr). this besides explains the sorting out of Mendeleev'due south A and B double columns in a group. The periods are consummate now that nosotros know almost Noble Gases.
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The use and part of the Periodic Table will never cease! Newly 'human being-made' elements are being synthesised.
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In the 1940's Glenn Seaborg was part of a inquiry squad developing the materials required to produce the first atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He specialised in separating all the substances made in the first nuclear reactors and helped discover the serial of 'nuclear synthesised' elements beyond the naturally occurring limit of uranium (92U). From chemical element 93 to 118 are now known, and so the construction of the bottom part of the periodic table volition continue to grow. There is plenty of scope for present day, and hereafter Mendeleev'southward!!!! (will you exist i of them!?).
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Atomic structure history note: From 1913 onwards the electron structure of atoms was gradually being understood and paralleling the developing knowledge of the structure of the nucleus and its importance in determining which element an atom was i.due east. the atomic/proton number. The Bohr theory of the hydrogen spectrum (see section 2.half-dozen) postulated that the electrons surrounding the positive nucleus could but exist in specific energy levels and that any electron level modify must involve a specific input/output of free energy - the quanta east.g. a photon of light or 10-rays etc.
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In the 1920'south and 1930's scientist-mathematicians like Heisenberg and Schr�dinger were developing the mathematical equations known equally wave mechanics. These mathematical theories describe the detailed behaviour of electrons, and out of these equations come the four breakthrough numbers from which are derived the set up of rules we use to assign electrons in their respective levels (see section 2.2), which ultimately determines the chemical science of an element.
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The 'many' names used to indicate the various groups and series of elements in the periodic tabular array Other miscellaneous 'names' comments, non standard IUPAC descriptors
Alkali metals � The very reactive metals of group i: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr
Alkaline earth metals � The metals of group two: Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
Pnictogens � The elements of group v/15: N, P, As, Sb, Bi (non-metals ==> metals)
Chalcogens � The elements of grouping vi/sixteen: O, Due south, Se, Te, Po, Lv (non-metals ==> metals)
Halogens � The elements of group vii/17: F, Cl, Br, I, At
Noble gases � The elements of group 0/18: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Lanthanoids � Elements 57�71: La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu
Actinoids � Elements 89�103: Air conditioning, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr
Rare earth elements � Sc, Y, and the lanthanoids
Transition metals � Elements in groups three to 11 or 12. (eg 3d block Sc to Cu or Zn)
Lanthanoids and actinoids may be referred to as lanthanides and actinides respectively.
Mail service-transition metals � metals of groups 13�16: Al, Ga, In, Tl, Sn, Pb, Bi, Po.
Metalloids � elements with backdrop intermediate between metals and non-metals: B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, At.
Diatomic nonmetals � nonmetals that exist as diatomic molecules in their standard states: H, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I.
Superactinides � hypothetical series of elements 121 to 155, which includes a predicted "g-block" of the periodic table.
Precious metallic � non-radioactive metals of high economical value eg silver, gold, platinum
Coinage metals � diverse metals used to mint coins eg the coinage metals Ni, Cu, Ag, and Au.
Platinum group � Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt
Noble metal � vague term for corrosion resistant metals similar silver and gilt and the platinum-group metals
Heavy metals � metals like lead, on the basis of their density, atomic number, or toxicity
Native metals � metals that can occur pure in nature eg gold and copper
Transuranium elements � elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (U)
Transactinide elements � elements after the actinides with atomic numbers greater than 103 (Lr)
Transplutonium elements � elements with diminutive number greater than 94 (Pu)
1.6 Where did elements come from originally? Where practice we get the elements from?
(a) Where did elements come from originally? Information technology all starts in the STARS!
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The ultimate origin of all elements is the nuclear reactions that proceed when stars are formed from inter-stellar dust and gas forming a huge combined mass due to gravity, and so 'chunks' of a star cool down to form planets. The heaviest elements are formed in nuclear fusion reactions when stars cocky-destruct in super-nova explosions.
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The nuclear synthesis of light elements up to Z = 26 (Fe, iron) occurs in stars formed from the condensation of hydrogen and helium atoms.
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Eventually, as the mass increases, the strength of gravity causes such compression that the temperatures rise considerably at loftier matter densities and nuclear reactions brainstorm.
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Up to Z = 26 nuclei, they are ordinarily formed energy releasing fusion processes or the disuse of unstable nuclei
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There are hundreds of possible nuclear transformations possible, so, below, I've chosen some examples of possible nuclear reactions, whose products fit in with the isotopes, mass numbers, relative atomic masses etc. which A level chemistry students are likely to come up across ...
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... in the nuclear equations, for the nuclide symbol A Z10, A = mass number, Z = atomic number, X = element symbol
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and gamma photons, and neutrinos, often formed in nuclear changes, are NOT shown for simplicity.
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one 1H + 1 1H ==> 2 1H + 1 0n
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The formation of hydrogen-2 (deuterium) occurs slowly at a temperature of i.v x ten7 K east.g. in our Dominicus (~15 million oC).
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ii 1H + one oneH ==> 3 2He + Æ”
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This is one way the side by side heaviest element, helium can be formed.
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3 2He + 3 2He ==> 4 2He + 2ane iH
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From helium-iii, the germination of helium-4, the most common isotope of helium we find on earth.
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From helium-4, by what is known as the alpha process, a succession of heavier elements tin can be synthesised in subsequent nuclear reactions ...
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24 twoHe ==> 8 4Exist
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beryllium-viii is very unstable, but is readily converted on collision with another helium-4 nucleus to requite stable carbon-12 (and ultimately life on earth!)
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8 ivExist + iv 2He ==> 12 6C
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These sorts of nuclear reactions demand star temperatures of ane x 10viii G (~100 million oC)
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12 sixC + 4 2He ==> sixteen 8O
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From carbon-12 you can get oxygen-xvi, the nearly common oxygen isotope on world today.
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16 viiiO + 4 2He ==> 20 tenNe
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From oxygen-16 you lot can get neon-20, the nearly common neon isotope on globe today.
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xx xNe + 4 2He ==> 24 12Mg
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From neon-20 yous can get magnesium-24, the most mutual magnesium isotope on earth today.
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24 10Mg + 4 2He ==> 28 14Si
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From magnesium-24 you tin can get silicon-28, the most common silicon isotope on world today.
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28 14Si + 4 twoHe ==> 32 16S
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From silicon-28 you can go sulfur-32, the about mutual sulphur isotope on earth today.
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32 xviS + four 2He ==> 36 18Ar
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From sulphur-32 you lot tin get argon-36, the almost mutual argon isotope on world today
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36 eighteenAr + 4 twoHe ==> 40 20Ca
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From argon-36 you can go calcium-40, the most common calcium isotope on globe today.
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You can see from the Periodic Table of relative atomic masses how the alpha-process ('helium burning' has produced the values for C, O, Ne, Mg, Si, South, Ar and Ca from the principal isotope of multiples of 4 mass units.
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At that place are lots of other possibilities involving H and He nuclei and particularly complicated nuclear fusion cycle involving carbon nuclei eastward.g. the 6 stride wheel ...
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12 viC + 1 1H ==> 13 7N
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13 7Due north ==> 13 cC + 0 +e
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thirteen 6C + one 1H ==> 14 7N
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fourteen 7Northward + i aneH ==> 15 eightO
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15 viiiO ==> 15 7N + 0 +due east (decay of oxygen-xv by positron emission)
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17 7N + ane 1H ==> 12 half-dozenC + 4 twoHe
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You can besides see how other isotopes of an element tin exist formed and in the bicycle carbon-12 is reformed to continue these particular nucleosynthesis pathways.
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At that place is a good illustration here with motorcar-catalytic cycles in chemistry e.g. the removal of ozone past chlorine atoms.
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The heavier elements beyond fe i.e. Z > 26 Co cobalt onwards must be formed by energy absorbing processes including neutron capture e.one thousand. the formation of technetium from molybdenum
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98 42Mo + 1 0n ==> 99 42Mo
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neutron absorbed by molybdenum-98 nucleus to requite an unstable Mo nucleus
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99 42Mo ==> 99 43Tc + 0 -due east
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Mo-98 nucleus decays by beta particle emission to give an atom of technetium, with a higher atomic number.
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Similarly, gallium tin can be formed from zinc, i.e. once more forming an element of higher diminutive number ...
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68 30Zn + i 0n ==> 69 thirtyZn followed by 69 30Zn ==> 69 31Ga + 0 -east
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And then you can see that these nuclear fusion, neutron or proton capture, nuclear decay etc., can over time, gradually produce all the heavier elements upwardly to element 92 uranium, the last of our naturally occurring elements.
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Even though pocket-size amounts of238 92U are eventually formed, information technology requires the highest of temperature e.g. in a super-nova explosion of giant stars a lot bigger than our dominicus!
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Some examples of nuclear fusion reactions to course heavier elements are quoted in Part three.four Where practice heavier elements come from?
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All the elements from diminutive numbers ane-92 (H-U) naturally occur on World, though some are very unstable-radioactive and decay to form more nuclear stable elements.
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Many isotopes of elements after lead, 82Pb are unstable.
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Afterward uranium, 92U, the vast majority of the isotopes of the elements of atomic number 93+ are inherently unstable.
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They volition not accept survived even if they were formed billions of years ago in the Dominicus, and retained or formed in the initial 'spin-off' material that formed the 'very early on' Earth.
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Yet, the advent of nuclear reactors has enabled up to kg quantities of e.g. plutonium, 94Pu (used in nuclear reactors and weapons) and americium, 95Am (used in smoke alarms) to be produced.
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Cyclotrons, particle battery linear accelerators, have enabled 'super-heavy' elements up to Z = 118? to be 'synthesised', but only a few atoms at a time (The Russia-The states space race seems to have been partly replaced past 'who tin synthesize the biggest atom'!).
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One things for certain, the Periodic Table still keeps growing with newly synthesised elements!
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(b) Where, and how, do we become the elements from the earth?
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Everything around you is made up of the elements of the periodic tabular array, BUT most are chemically combined with other elements in the form of many naturally occurring compounds e.yard.
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hydrogen and oxygen in h2o, sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride ('mutual common salt'), fe, oxygen and carbon as iron carbonate, carbon and oxygen as carbon dioxide etc. etc.!
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Therefore, most elements can only be obtained by some kind of chemical process to separate or extract an element from a chemical compound e.g.
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Less reactive metals are obtained by reduction of their oxides with carbon and more reactive metals are extracted by electrolysis of their chlorides or oxides (see GCSE/IGCSE/AS notes on Metallic Extraction)
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Not-metals are obtained past a multifariousness of means e.g. chlorine is obtained by electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (see GCSE/IGCSE notes on Group 7 The Halogens).
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However some elements never occur as compounds or they occur in their elemental class likewise every bit in compounds e.g.
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The Group 0 Noble Gases are so unreactive they are only present in the atmosphere equally individual atoms. Since air is a mixture, these gases are separated from air by a physical method of separation past distillation of liquified air. The elements oxygen and nitrogen are obtained from air at the same time, which is far more than convenient than trying to get them from compounds like oxides and nitrates etc.
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Gold/platinum is are the least reactive metals and are commonly found 'native' as the yellow/silvery elemental metal.
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Relatively unreactive metals similar copper and silvery can also exist found in their elemental form in mineral deposits as well as in metallic ores containing compounds like copper carbonate, copper sulphide and silver sulphide.
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The non-metal sulphur is found combined with oxygen and a metal in compounds known as sulphates, simply information technology can occur every bit relatively pure sulphur in xanthous mineral beds of the element.
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APPENDIX 1. ALL THE KNOWN ELEMENTS
Elements from Z = 1 to 118 in alphabetical order, so, given the diminutive number, find it on the full modern periodic table above (department one.5)
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No elements synthesised or named across Z = 118
Acme OF PAGE
WHAT Adjacent?
For not-A level students KS4 Science GCSE/IGCSE Periodic Table notes - including simplified historical comments
INORGANIC Part ane Historical Introduction page sub-alphabetize: 1.one The early classification of Antoine Lavoisier of 1789 * 1.two The 1829 work of Johann D�bereiner * 1.3 The work of John Newlands 1864 * 1.4 Dmitri Mendeleev'southward Periodic Tabular array and Lothar-Meyer graphs of ~1869 * 1.5 A modernistic Periodic Table based on the electronic structure of atoms * 1.6 Where did the elements come up from originally and where practise we become the elements from today?
Advanced Level Inorganic Chemistry Periodic Table Index * Part 1 Periodic Table history * Office 2 Electron configurations, spectroscopy, hydrogen spectrum, ionisation energies * Function 3 Period ane survey H to He * Function 4 Menstruation 2 survey Li to Ne * Office 5 Menstruation 3 survey Na to Ar * Part 6 Catamenia 4 survey Chiliad to Kr and important trends down a group * Part 7 s-block Groups 1/2 Alkali Metals/Alkaline Earth Metals * Function 8 p-cake Groups iii/13 to 0/eighteen * Part ix Group seven/17 The Halogens * Part ten 3d block elements & Transition Metal Serial * Part 11 Grouping & Series information & periodicity plots * All 11 Parts have their own sub-indexes near the top of the pages
periodic table history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for AQA AS chemical science, periodic tabular array history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for Edexcel AS chemistry, periodic tabular array history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for OCR AS chemistry A, periodic table history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for OCR Salters AS chemical science B, periodic tabular array history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for AQA A level chemistry, periodic table history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for Edexcel A level chemical science, periodic tabular array history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for OCR A level chemistry A, periodic tabular array history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for OCR Salters A level chemistry B periodic table history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for US Honours form 11 class 12 periodic table history nuclear physics origin of elements nuclear equations for pre-university chemical science courses group/series periodic table position of element Ac Actinium 89, group/series periodic table position of element Al Aluminium/Aluminum 13, group/series periodic table position of element Am Americium 95, group/series periodic table position of element Sb Antimony 51, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Ar Argon xviii, grouping/series periodic table position of element Equally Arsenic 33, group/series periodic table position of chemical element At Astatine 85, Ba Barium 56, group/serial periodic table position of chemical element Bk Berkelium 97, group/series periodic table position of element Be Beryllium iv, group/series periodic table position of element Bi Bismuth 83, grouping/series periodic tabular array position of chemical element Bh Bohrium 107, group/serial periodic table position of element B Boron 5, group/serial periodic table position of chemical element Br Bromine 35, group/series periodic table position of element Cd Cadmium 48, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Cs Caesium/Cesium 55, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Ca Calcium 20, grouping/series periodic table position of chemical element Cf Californium 98, group/series periodic tabular array position of element C Carbon 6, group/series periodic table position of element Ce Cerium 58, grouping/serial periodic table position of element Cl Chlorine 17, group/series periodic tabular array position of chemical element Cr Chromium 24, group/series periodic table position of element Co Cobalt 27, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Cn Copernicium 112, group/serial periodic tabular array position of chemical element Cu Copper 29, group/series periodic tabular array position of element, Cm Curium 96, group/serial periodic table position of chemical element Ds Darmstadtium 110, group/series periodic table position of element Db Dubnium 105, grouping/series periodic tabular array position of element Dy Dysprosium 66, grouping/series periodic table position of element Es Einsteinium 99, group/series periodic table position of element Er Erbium 68, group/series periodic table position of element Eu Europium 63, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Fm Fermium 100, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Fl Flerovium 114, group/serial periodic tabular array position of chemical element F Fluorine nine, grouping/series periodic tabular array position of element Fr Francium 87, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Gd Gadolinium 64, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Ga Gallium 31, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Ge Germanium 32, grouping/series periodic table position of element Au Gold 79, group/series periodic table position of element Hf Hafnium 72, grouping/series periodic table position of chemical element Hs Hassium 108, group/serial periodic table position of element He Helium 2, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Ho Holmium 67, group/series periodic tabular array position of element H Hydrogen 1, group/series periodic tabular array position of element In Indium 49, group/series periodic table position of element I Iodine 53, group/series periodic table position of element Ir Iridium 77, group/series periodic tabular array position of chemical element Fe Fe 26, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Kr Krypton 36, grouping/series periodic table position of element La Lanthanum 57, group/series periodic table position of element Lw Lawrencium 103, group/series periodic table position of element Pb Atomic number 82 82, grouping/serial periodic tabular array position of element Li Lithium 3, grouping/series periodic table position of chemical element Lv Livermorium 116, group/series periodic table position of element Lu Lutetium 71, grouping/series periodic table position of element Mg Magnesium 12, group/series periodic table position of element Mn Manganese 25, grouping/serial periodic table position of element Mt Meitnerium 109, group/series periodic table position of element Md Mendelevium 101, group/serial periodic table position of chemical element Hg Mercury eighty, group/series periodic table position of element Mo Molybdenum 42, group/serial periodic tabular array position of chemical element Mc Moscovium 115, grouping/serial periodic tabular array position of element Nd Neodymium 60, group/serial periodic tabular array position of element Ne Neon 10, group/series periodic table position of element Np Neptunium 93, group/serial periodic table position of element Ni Nickel 28, group/series periodic table position of element Nh Nihonium 113, group/series periodic table position of element Nb Niobium 41, group/series periodic tabular array position of element N Nitrogen 7, group/series periodic table position of element No Nobelium 102, grouping/serial periodic table position of element Og Oganesson 117, group/serial periodic table position of element Os Osmium 76, grouping/serial periodic table position of element O Oxygen 8, group/series periodic table position of element Pd Palladium 46, group/series periodic table position of element P Phosphorus xv, group/serial periodic table position of element Pt Platinum 78, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Pu Plutonium 94, group/serial periodic tabular array position of chemical element Po Polonium 84, group/serial periodic table position of element K Potassium 19, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Pr Praseodymium 59, grouping/serial periodic tabular array position of element Pm Promethium 61, group/serial periodic table position of element Pa Protactinium 91, group/series periodic table position of element Ra Radium 88, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Rn Radon 86, group/series periodic table position of element Re Rhenium 75, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Rh Rhodium 45, grouping/serial periodic table position of element Rg Roentgenium 111, group/series periodic table position of element Rb Rubidium 37, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Ru Ruthenium 44, group/serial periodic table position of element Rf Rutherfordium 104, group/series periodic
table position of chemical element Sm Samarium 62, grouping/series periodic table position of element Sc Scandium 21, group/serial periodic table position of element Sg Seaborgium 106, grouping/series periodic table position of chemical element Se Selenium 34, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Si Silicon 14, group/serial periodic table position of element Ag Silver 47, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Na Sodium eleven, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Sr Strontium 38, grouping/series periodic table position of element S Sulphur/Sulfur 16, group/serial periodic table position of element Ta Tantalum 73, group/series periodic table position of element Tc Technetium 43, group/serial periodic table position of element Te Tellurium 52, group/series periodic table position of element Ts Tennessine 117, group/series periodic table position of element Tb Terbium 65, group/series periodic table position of element Tl Thallium 81, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Thursday Thorium 90, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Tm Thulium 69, group/series periodic table position of element Sn Tin 50, group/series periodic tabular array position of element Ti Titanium 22, grouping/series periodic tabular array position of chemical element W Tungsten 74, group/series periodic table position of chemical element U Uranium 92, group/series periodic table position of element V Vanadium 23, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Xe Xenon 54, group/series periodic table position of chemical element Yb Ytterbium 70, grouping/series periodic table position of element Y Yttrium 39, group/series periodic table position of element Zn Zinc 30, grouping/series periodic table position of element Zr Zirconium forty studying chemistry at Cambridge academy studying chemistry at Oxford university studying chemical science at Durham university studying chemistry at York university studying chemistry at Edinburgh university studying chemistry at St Andrews university studying chemistry at Imperial College London university studying chemistry at Warwick university studying chemistry at Sussex university studying chemistry at Bath university studying chemistry at Nottingham academy studying chemistry at Surrey university studying chemistry at Bristol university studying chemistry at Cardiff university studying chemistry at Birmingham university studying chemistry at Manchester academy studying chemistry at Academy College London university studying chemical science at Strathclyde university studying chemistry at Loughborough university studying chemistry at Southampton university studying chemistry at Sheffield university studying chemistry at Glasgow university studying chemistry at Liverpool academy studying chemistry at Leeds university studying chemistry at Queens, Belfast university studying chemistry at Kings College, London university studying chemistry at Heriot-Watt university studying chemistry at Lancaster university studying chemistry at E Anglia (UEA) university studying chemical science at Newcastle university studying chemical science at Keele academy studying chemistry at Leicester university studying chemical science at Bangor university studying chemistry at Nottingham Trent university studying chemistry at Kent university studying chemistry at Aberdeen university studying chemistry at Coventry university studying chemical science at Sheffield Hallam academy studying chemistry at Aston university studying chemistry at Hull university studying chemistry at Bradford university studying chemistry at Huddersfield university studying chemistry at Queen Mary, Academy of London academy studying chemistry at Reading university studying chemistry at Glyndwr academy studying chemistry at Brighton university studying chemical science at Manchester Metropoliten academy studying chemistry at De Montfort university studying chemistry at Northumbria university studying chemistry at Due south Wales academy studying chemical science at Liverpool John Moores university studying chemistry at Central Lancashire university studying chemistry at Kingston university studying chemistry at Westward of Scotland university studying chemistry at Lincoln university studying chemical science at Plymouth university studying chemical science at Greenwich academy studying chemistry at Liverpool Metropolitan academy
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For non-A level students KS4 Scientific discipline GCSE/IGCSE Periodic Table notes - including simplified historical comments
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